1. Merchants of Insecurity: Institutional and Organizational Responses of the English Levant Company Merchants in the Ottoman Balkans (1850–1914)
Author: Ü. Serdar SERDAROĞLU
Abstract: This paper examines how English Levant Company merchant houses operating in the Ottoman Balkans navigated a structurally insecure environment between 1850 and 1914. Conceptually, it reframes “insecurity” from episodic shock to a persistent field of constraints and opportunities produced by war, nationalist mobilization, fiscal-legal change, and infrastructural rivalry. Empirically, it analyzes three family firms, the Abbotts in Salonica, Hanson & Co. in Monastir, and the Blunt family in Adrianople, to identify the organizational logics through which commercial actors adapted, reallocated, or exited. The study mobilizes multi-sited archival evidence (British consular correspondence, Lloyd’s Maritime Lists and Papers, Ottoman administrative records, commercial yearbooks, and private business letters) to reconstruct strategies at the interface of law, logistics, and finance. It argues that legal pluralism, capitulations, beratlı protection, and mixed jurisdiction, conditioned risk and recourse, while railways, ports, and customs regimes reconfigured spatial choice sets and bargaining power. Comparative findings show heterogeneous responses to common pressures: the Abbotts combined consular embeddedness with route and commodity diversification, leveraging alternative Mediterranean gateways to maintain circulation during episodes of violence and border change; Hanson & Co. pursued spatial and sectoral rebalancing from Monastir toward Istanbul while deepening financial intermediation (bill broking, exchange operations) to monetize volatility and hedge logistical disruption; by contrast, the Blunts’ tighter coupling to Adrianople’s tobacco complex and a narrower coalition portfolio limited flexibility, amplifying exposure during 1908–1913 and precipitating liquidation by 1914. Methodologically, the paper integrates firm-level narrative with institutional analysis, linking micro adjustments (warehousing shifts, contracting practices, credit instruments) to macro transformations (public debt administration, railway concessions, customs reform). The contribution is twofold. To business history, it demonstrates that family-firm resilience in late imperial settings hinges less on scale than on the capacity to recombine geographies, contracts, and coalitions under shifting rules. To Ottoman economic history, it shows how consular regimes and infrastructural politics structured risk, recourse, and rents in Balkan commerce. More broadly, the article elaborates a transferable framework for studying merchant adaptation under endemic insecurity, offering hypotheses testable across other late-imperial corridors and mixed-jurisdiction markets.
Key words: Ottoman Balkans, English Levant Company, Merchant Networks, Institutional Adaptation, Business History and Insecurity
JEL: N00, B17, N83
DOI: 10.61836/REYB6808
2. Foods and Non-foods: Relative Prices and Economic Disruptions in Modern and Contemporary History of Bulgaria
Author: Kaloyan GANEV, Ralitsa SIMEONOVA-GANEVA, Martin IVANOV
Abstract: This study examines the long-term dynamics of food versus non-food relative prices in present-day Bulgaria from 1750 to 2020. Using a fixed consumer basket comprising 11 food and six non-food items, we develop a consistent series of this price ratio. We subsequently establish two types 15 of benchmarks corresponding to a notion of (near-)equilibrium: an interquartile-based benchmark and a long-term trend. We then identify the periods during which the series dynamics diverged from these benchmarks. These deviations are considered in relation to potential linkages with events such as wars, climatic shocks, institutional changes, exchange rate misalignments and administered pricing regimes. Our findings indicate that the food/non-food ratio remained broadly stable over the long term, with significant but temporary deviations coinciding with historical short-term disruptions. Periods of unusually low ratios, when food was inexpensive relative to non-food, correspond with abundant harvests, suppressed food prices, or costly imports of industrial goods, as observed during the late Ottoman agrarian economy, Tanzimat reforms, the Crimean War, and Bulgaria’s 1996 financial crisis. Conversely, high-ratio episodes, when food became expensive compared to non-food, arose under conditions of agricultural shortfalls, requisitions, rationing, and price controls, such as wartime blockades, world wars, and the socialist era. The transition of the 1990s exhibited the most volatile dynamics, whereas post-2000 integration coincided with reduced volatility and re-centering near the historical mean. The analysis highlights the political economic dimension of relative prices as a distributional barometer: rising food prices favored rural producers, whereas rising non-food prices advantaged urban producers, reflecting the price-scissors framework. Despite episodic distortions, we do not detect statistically significant level shifts in formal break tests (Bai-Perron). Rather, deep general equilibrium linkages maintained the connection between the two bundles through labor, energy, and trade markets. In periods characterized by competitive markets, the price ratios typically oscillate within defined bands. Conversely, during periods of diminished or absent market competition, price distortions are prevalent. This observation underscores the critical role played by market institutions in the evolution of price ratios. The empirical findings establish a benchmark for comparative analysis across various regions and economies. The straightforward yet effective approach we propose for identifying price distortions could serve as a reliable tool for examining price trends, which is robust to typical historical data limitations.
Key words: relative prices; food–non-food ratio; price scissors; price distortions; Bulgaria; economic history; administered pricing; economic disruptions
JEL: E31, N13, N14, P22, C22
DOI: 10.61836/NZYG8317
3. Wealth and Power Reconfigured: Balkan Elites between Imperial Legacies and Modern Institutions. A Comparative Study of Financial Actors from the 18th to the 19th Century
Author: Mustafa Can GÜRİPEK
Abstract: This study investigates the economic dynamics of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Bulgaria through the unique lens of the ledger of Hristo Rachkov, a prominent money-changer (sarraf) and merchant based in Veliko Tarnovo. While primarily a prosperous figure in regional commerce, Rachkov also played a notable role as a financial supporter of the Filiki Eteria, the Greek revolutionary organization, thereby situating his activities at the intersection of local economic practices and emerging Balkan national movements. By combining primary archival materials with secondary historiography, this research sheds light on how wealth and prosperity were created, accumulated, and conceptualized in a society that had yet to adopt modern economic structures. The analysis departs from conventional macroeconomic indicators and instead asks how prosperity in premodern economies can be assessed. Using Rachkov’s records as a starting point, the study compares his financial activities, business strategies, and investment patterns with those of his contemporaries. This comparative framework allows for the identification of broader structural features of the Ottoman-Balkan economy, such as credit practices, risk management, and the circulation of capital across regional and transregional networks. In doing so, the article underscores the importance of merchants and sarrafs as mediators of wealth in settings where state institutions and modern banking mechanisms were underdeveloped. To deepen this inquiry, the research also employs Social Network Analysis (SNA) to map Rachkov’s connections with clients, partners, and associates. The resulting network visualization highlights the extent and diversity of his interactions, revealing how economic ties overlapped with familial, communal, and political affiliations. Such a methodological approach not only makes it possible to trace the diffusion of financial resources within local society, but also to illuminate the mechanisms by which commercial elites acquired influence and legitimacy. The findings demonstrate that Rachkov’s embeddedness in overlapping networks enabled him to leverage trust, reputation, and solidarity in ways that extended beyond purely economic transactions. By situating Rachkov’s ledger at the intersection of economic history, social network analysis, and the study of nationalism, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of wealth in the Ottoman Balkans. It suggests that prosperity in non-modern economies cannot be reduced to numerical measures of output or capital, but must also be understood through the relational practices that sustained communities and shaped trajectories of political change.
Key words: Ottoman Balkans, commerce, sarraf, social network analysis, wealth
JEL: N13, N93
DOI: 10.61836/CQTU9315
4. The Social Composition of Polish United Workers’ Party Leadership
Author: Marcin WROŃSKI, Olga ZAŁĘSKA
Abstract: In this article, the authors discuss the social standing of the members of central party bodies and regional leaders of the Polish United Workers Party. For this purpose, a database was created, including 1677 individuals holding 3148 offices. The communist elite was strongly positively selected on the basis of genealogical ties to the prewar social elite, as well as occupation and education. The central authorities of the PZPR were most “elite” during the Stalinist period, while their ties to the prewar elite weakened in the 1970s. Kinship ties between the democratic opposition leaders and the pre-war social elite were more pronounced than those observed among the communist party leadership.
Key words: state socialism, social mobility, elite, genealogy, Polish People’s Republic
JEL: N34, N44, P30
DOI: 10.61836/GMMW8819
5. The Pre- and Post-WWI Dynamics of Saving, Investment, and Interest Rates: A Cross-Country Comparison
Author: Ivan TODOROV
Abstract: The study examines the dynamics of interest rates over 1904–1929 through the joint behavior of investment and saving across a diverse set of economies. It compares belligerents and occupied countries (Belgium, France, Italy, Germany), neutrals (the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway), extra-European cases (Australia, Japan), and the United Kingdom as the principal financial center. We document a broad-based rise in interest rates after World War I but operating through different structural channels: destruction and reconstruction pressures in Belgium and France; fiscal/budgetary burdens and the decision to return to gold in the United Kingdom and Italy; and institutional/market depth specificities in Japan. Methodologically, the study uses the Jordà–Schularick–Taylor Macrohistory Database (JST) Macrohistory Database (Release 6). Interpreting short-term nominal rate trends as informative about natural rate of interest (r*) rests on well-established money-demand/velocity relationships, while the post-war environment adds two additional layers: (i) the gold-exchange regime inaugurated after Genoa (1922) — the Genoa Conference on Economic and Financial Questions, which reconfigured the international hierarchy of “safe” assets without a single hegemonic issuer; and (ii) elevated macro-uncertainty, which raised risk premia even as reconstruction boosted capital demand. The findings speak to contemporary debates on safe-asset supply, fiscal capacity, and the identification of r* from market yields. Large, system-wide shocks can simultaneously shift saving–investment balances, risk premia, and the international monetary architecture—mechanisms that remain pertinent for interpreting interest-rate behavior in today’s crises.
Key words: saving–investment balance; economic reconstruction; war destruction; comparative economic history; natural rate of interest (r*); gold-exchange standard; safe assets.
JEL: E43; E44, N14
DOI: 10.61836/OCMQ9823
6. The Inscription of Scaptopara (AD 238) as Evidence of Wartime Hardships
Author: Lyudmila CHAKAROVA – PRISOEVA
Abstract: The inscription from Skaptopara is one of the few surviving epigraphic monuments providing information about the situation in the Thracian lands in the first half of the 3rd century and about the development of public relations in the period. It reveals not only the resources available to the region, but also its strategic location as part of the Roman province of Thrace. The monument also indicates the position of soldiers in society and the problems their behavior creates for individual communities. The preserved text provides valuable information about the reign of Gordian III, the economic and social reality in the empire, and in particular in Thrace. The content of the inscription makes clear the procedure for carrying out correspondence and seeking justice from citizens to the emperor and provincial governors. The inscription from Skaptopara is also the only source that reports on the Thracian Gresites, inhabiting the region, specific addressees of the imperial response to a petition to the Roman authorities.
Key words: Scaptopara, Thrace, Gordian III, rescript, petition, Roman army
JEL: N93
DOI: 10.61836/BUOY6504
7. On the Military and Economical Connections between Northern Italy and the Moesian Lands (According to a Late Antique Inscription from Aquileia)
Author: Kalin STOEV
Abstract: The inscriptions from the regio or territorium Montanensium are of great importance for understanding the role of the Roman army in the protection of the economically important areas of the province of Moesia and for the military-administrative history of our lands during the Roman era. The area had economic and military-logistical importance, which is why Roman troops with security functions were garrisoned there: initially a cohort, and then a legionary vexillatio (detachment). The report is devoted to a published, but not sufficiently known, late antique inscription from the Italic Colony of Aquileia (Venetia region), which mentions a commander of a military unit Moesiaci from the regio Montanensium. An analysis of the inscription’s evidence is offered in view of the context suggested by other testimonies for the existence of close economic and military-organizational ties between this Italiс city and the territory of the ancient Ratiaria and Montana. It is concluded that the inscription is evidence of the continuing military supervision over the economically important region of Montana, which arose in view of the internal and foreign political problems in the Moesian lands of the 2nd – 3rd centuries AD.
Key words: epigraphy, Roman Army, Moesia, Aquileia
JEL: N33; N53; N93
DOI: 10.61836/POSU8486
8. Barbarian Raids, the Financial Resources of Christian Communities and the Power of Bishops in the 4th Century
Author: Zlatomira GERDZHIKOVA
Abstract: One of the main characteristics of Late Antiquity is the constant barbarian invasions, which, in addition to burning and plundering settlements, were characterized by the kidnapping of civilians. Since the beginning of human history, captives have been part of the economic structure of ancient societies, initially as a commodity that could be redeemed for a certain price, and later as slaves. Until the establishment of Christianity in Roman cities, the opportunity to be redeemed and saved from slavery was enjoyed by those belonging to the ruling aristocracy and the gradually increasing urban elite. Christianity puts believers at the forefront, regardless of their social status. With the proposed report, I aim to present how the increase in the property and income of the Church was used by the bishops of the larger and more influential municipalities by redeeming captured Christians and rescuing them from slavery to increase, on the one hand, their personal power, and on the other, to impose the bishop as a key figure in the administration of the late antique city. The proposed study is based on information from the writings of the Fathers of the Church, personal letters of bishops and general histories of the Church from the 5th century.
Key words: Late Antique Church, barbarians, captivity, ransom, Church finance
JEL: N33, N94
DOI: 10.61836/KRGI8992
9. War, Changes, and Resource Management in Bulgaria between the 800s and the 830s
Author: Mikhail RAEV
Abstract: The article examines two political, social, and economic processes in Bulgaria that occurred and developed between the 800s and the 830s – the expansion of the state and the ramifications of voluntary and forced migration of population, as well as the emergence of new economic and production activities due to this influx. For their interpretation, the author proposes an interdisciplinary framework that synthesises elements from the theories of the new institutional economy, historical institutionalism and technological change. The first process involves several voluntary and forced migrations of population from the Byzantine themes of Thrace and Macedonia as a result of Byzantine-Bulgarian war during the reigns of Krum and Omurtag. This process ignited the second process of economic, institutional, and technological transfer from the Byzantine Empire to Bulgaria and its subsequent transformation. The article delves into one aspect of this change. Namely, the restoration of the water-conduits and installation of a new water supply system of the palace and the internal city of Pliska. The author surveys the written, archaeological, and epigraphic evidence for the production of new pipes and the management of water resources in mediaeval Bulgaria. The water supply system in the Pliska area was in ruins since the local population abandoned the area in Late Antiquity. Bulgarians partially restored it in the first half of the ninth century. The author argues that the forced migration of the skilled population, resulting from Krum’s and Omurtag’s campaigns, facilitated the institutional change in Bulgarian society and the technological transfer from the Byzantine Empire to its northern neighbour and rival for Balkan supremacy.
Key words: Mediaeval Bulgaria, institutional change, technological transfer, Byzantine, Byzantine-Bulgarian war
JEL: N13, N43
DOI: 10.61836/ZSRW1076
10. The Anarchy, the Russo-Turkish Wars and the Uprisings in the Ottoman Empire from the End of the 18th and the First Decades of the 19th Century as a Factor in the Development of Cities in the Bulgarian Lands Under Ottoman Rule
Author: Ventsislav MUCHINOV
Abstract: The article analyzes the impact of the major socio-political upheavals in the Ottoman Empire from the end of the 18th and the first decades of the 19th century on the demographic and economic development of cities in the Bulgarian lands under Ottoman rule – especially the prolonged anarchy in the Balkan provinces of the Empire and the Russo-Turkish wars of 1806–1812 and 1828–1829. The role of these upheavals in activating the decline of some significant Ottoman military-administrative centers, such as Nikopol, Silistra and Sofia, is considered. At the same time, these events contributed to the demographic, economic and administrative rise of other cities in the Bulgarian-populated Ottoman provinces of the Balkans, such as Ruse, Plovdiv and Bitola. The research found that despite all the political upheavals, the share of the urban population in the Bulgarian lands increased, which favoured the further development of urbanization in the region during the 19th century.
Key words: Ottoman Empire, Bulgarian lands, anarchy, Russo-Turkish wars, demographic and economic development of cities, urbanization
JEL: N33, N43, N93
DOI:10.61836/NBPC5572
11. The Wars and the Economic Development. The Bulgarian’s Case from the First Half of the 19th Century
Author: Ivan ROUSSEV
Abstract: The article focuses on the Bulgarian lands during the first half of the 19th century. It concerns the eastern parts of the Balkans, i.e. the territories of the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited mainly by Bulgarians, which during this period were severely affected by three consecutive Russo-Turkish wars: the wars of 1806–1812, 1828–1829, and the Crimean War, 1853–1856. In an attempt to develop working hypotheses about the extent to which each of these wars affected local economic development, the main economic-historical approach leads to the selection and analysis of accessible historical sources. In this sense, the study proposed here is aimed at analysing and evaluating historical sources on the subject. The comparison between these three Russo-Turkish wars leads to the working hypothesis that the first two, those of 1806–1812 and 1828–1829, led to more severe crises in the economic situation of the Bulgarian lands. The reasons for this are the military actions carried out on Bulgarian territory, the destruction of important economic and commercial centres (in the first of the two wars, the Russian army deliberately plundered Svishtov, one of these centres), as well as the large wave of emigration during and after the wars. In the second war, there is reason to believe that emigration was greater, and together with the subsequent re-emigration, the time it took for the local economy to stabilize was extended to 4-5 years. This was not the case during the Crimean War, when military operations and the accompanying destruction and human casualties had only a short-term impact on Bulgarian economic development, and price increases were more a consequence of the integration of the Bulgarian economy into the European one. This war led to the attraction of capital, which subsequently had a positive impact on local economic development.
Key words: Economic Development, Bulgarian lands during the first half of the 19th century, Russo-Turkish wars, the Ottoman archives in Istanbul, the French diplomatic archives
JEL: N13, N43, N73, N93
DOI: 10.61836/CBTD3802
12. The Russo-Ottoman Wars and the Bulgarian Revolution as an Obstacle and/or Opportunity for the Entrepreneurs from the Town of Svishtov during the 19th Century
Author: Ivaylo NAYDENOV
Abstract: The aim of the paper proposed is to present information concerning the impact of the wars between Russia and the Ottoman Empire on the activities of entrepreneurs in Svishtov during the ‘long’ 19th century. It sheds light on the demographic and economic consequences of the wars that took place in the time frame 1806–1812, 1828–1829, 1853–1856, and 1877–1878. On the other hand, emphasis is given to the economic outcomes of such revolutionary events as the ‘Svishtov Conspiracy’ of 1866–1867. In order to be accomplished this aim, commercial and private letters have been utilized. They are stored at the Bulgarian Historical Archive in the National Library, in the Scientific Archive at the Bulgarian Academy of Science, in the Central State Archive in Sofia. Older and contemporary studies dedicated to the merchants of Svishtov, as well as the history of the town of Svishtov, have been utilized. Wars and revolutionary events inevitably influenced the economic activity of the entrepreneurs of Svishtov during the ‘long 19th century.’ They had a somewhat negative impact on the economic life. Such events are always accompanied by demographic shocks, the most noticeable of which is that of September 1810. After 1810 and after the subsequent political upheavals, Svishtov recovered thanks to its central location (on an important trade route linking Central Europe and Asia Minor) and the opportunities it offered for developing entrepreneurial practice. The settlement attracted settlers from different localities in the Bulgarian lands, who were open-minded persons with entrepreneurial acumen and progressive thinking. They managed to restore and/or to establish contacts with relatives, acquaintances, and compatriots, through which the necessary (financial) resources flowed in Svishtov. During all mentioned political upheavals, there are people from the town of Svishtov with speculative thinking who took risk but also enriched themselves. The latter is particularly evident during the Russio-Ottoman War of Liberation (1877–1878). Moreover, the issues studied deserve particular attention and in-depth research in the future.
Key words: Bulgarian National Revival period, Russio-Ottoman wars, Bulgarian Revolution, Svishtov entrepreneurs, obstacles, opportunity
JEL: KN73, N83, N93
DOI: 10.61836/PTAY4979
13. The Eastern Crisis of the 1870s and the Second Issue of Paper Money in the Ottoman Empire
Author: Hristiyan ATANASOV
Abstract: This article examines the Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and the second issuance of paper money by the Ottoman government (1876–1877). The printing of paper currency is analyzed in the context of the empire’s deepening political and, in particular, fiscal difficulties. The study reviews the regulatory documents governing this monetary operation, together with the supplementary instructions and measures through which the Sublime Porte sought to maintain public confidence in the kaime.
The Ottoman authorities alternated the issuance of banknotes with repeated assurances that the money supply would gradually be reduced and the kaime withdrawn from circulation. Special attention is devoted to the problem of counterfeiting. The article traces fluctuations in the value of the banknotes and highlights corresponding market reactions.
It further demonstrates how the Bulgarian émigré press exploited public distrust of the kaime as an instrument of political propaganda in Bulgaria. In contrast, the press published within the empire expressed more moderate views, though overall skepticism prevailed. The study also presents a case in which Ottoman officials themselves exhibited distrust toward the government-issued currency. In addition to periodical sources, the research draws upon Ottoman administrative documents and the memoirs of Kontantin Bozveliev, a contemporary observer of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878).
Keywords: Eastern Crisis, paper money, kaime, Ottoman Empire, Bulgarians
JEL: N13, G18
DOI: 10.61836/NYUR9172
14. The Ottoman Default of 1875 and its Role for Bulgaria’s Liberation
Author: Dimitar SABEV
Abstract: The Ottoman default of 1875 played a pivotal role in resolving the Eastern Question and, consequently, contributed to the emergence of the Bulgarian national state. This article explores the impact of this sovereign default across three main areas, specifically focusing on Bulgaria’s liberation. First, the default’s international political consequences were immediate and profound. The outrage of investors who lost approximately 200 million pounds weakened Western support for the Ottoman Empire, paving the way for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–78. The diplomatic correspondence of Benjamin Disraeli confirms that the Porte’s bankruptcy dramatically shifted the balance of power, making it impossible to uphold the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire as stipulated in the Treaty of Paris of 1856. Furthermore, a sovereign default of this magnitude set a dangerous precedent, necessitating that Turkey be publicly “punished.” This atmosphere encouraged Russia to take swift and decisive action against its weakened adversary. The significance of financial factors in the Eastern Question is further highlighted by the Treaty of Berlin of 1878, which assigned Bulgaria a portion of the Ottoman debt – a payment Bulgaria ultimately managed to avoid. Second, the domestic socioeconomic effects were debilitating. The default – and the events leading up to it – undermined the vitality of the Empire resulting in heavy taxation, galloping inflation, postponed infrastructure investments essential for war efforts, shortages of supplies, and a demoralized army and administration. Third, the Ottoman default sparked the radicalization of Bulgarian revolutionary intellectuals, who interpreted the Empire’s financial troubles as the “right time to strike.” Special attention is given to Hristo Botev, who was the most astute among his Bulgarian peers in analyzing financial matters. Months before the official default, Botev predicted in his newspaper Zname that the Porte’s bankruptcy was imminent. The article concludes by discussing why Bulgarian historiography has generally neglected the theme of the Ottoman sovereign default. In addition to its central role in the Eastern Question, this significant episode in modern economic history merits further study, as it illustrates the recurring cycle of war, credit, and subjugated debtor.
Key words: Ottoman default, Eastern Question, Bulgaria’s liberation, sovereign default, war finance, odious debt, Hristo Botev
JEL: N23, N25, N40, F34, H63
DOI: 10.61836/LYDJ2202
15. Bulgarian Entrepreneurs and the Political Situation in the Balkans in the 1850s–1870s
Author: Svetla ATANASOVA
Abstract: The concepts of entrepreneurship in conditions of crisis and uncertainty and the specific full or partial application of economic theories in the practice of Bulgarian Renaissance figures are presented. The emphasis is placed on the most dynamic period of economic growth in the „Bulgarian version“ from the 1850s to the 1870s. These processes are directly linked to the political situation in the Balkans. The stages of economic growth or decline, creativity, competition or adaptation of the Renaissance entrepreneurs coincide with the major social changes in societies from the Crimean War to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The above statements are supported by a number of examples from the preserved documentary heritage of the Bulgarian entrepreneurs Evlogi and Hristo Georgiev, Petar Kermekchiev, Georgi Kisimov, Slavcho Paskalev, Todor Vassilev and others.
Keywords: economic theories, entrepreneurs, Bulgarian Renaissance, political situation.
JEL: N01, N13, N63, N83, N94
DOI: 10.61836/CFUW9194
16. Reflection of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and its Results on the Diocese, the Material Condition and the Prospects for Development and Governance of the Bulgarian Exarchate
Author: Petko St. PETKOV
Abstract: The article presents mainly the negative consequences for the Bulgarian Exarchate as a result of the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1877–1878 and the treaties signed after it. Legitimately guaranteeing national unity in the 1870s, after the war the first all-Bulgarian institution fell into a state of crisis. Hundreds of churches were looted and destroyed, entire regions and parts of dioceses passed under foreign administrative and church governance, confusion arose among the higher clergy as to whether the Exarchate Statute of 1871 was still in force and how the Bulgarian Orthodox Church would self-govern in the future.
The diocese of the Bulgarian Church was fragmented, and within the borders of four countries, and it was through it that Bulgarian national unity was institutionally ensured until then. Problems arose in the governance of the Exarchate. For years, a separate statute for the governance of the church in the principality was not adopted, and the Exarchate Statute of 1871 was valid only for the dioceses in the Ottoman Empire, which for a long time – until the 1890s – remained without Bulgarian hierarchs. Supported by some influential politicians, although he was only the chairman of the “supreme spiritual authority” – the Holy Synod, after 1878 Exarch Joseph sought to govern alone – not as the first among equals, but as the “head” of the church. This eventually led to church-administrative division and the establishment in complete contradiction to the 1879 constitution of two separate synods in 1908 – in the principality and in the Ottoman state. During the war, the two theological schools ceased their activities, and after 1878 the restored Peter and Paul Seminary encountered constant difficulties and was closed by the regency in 1886. Thus, for a long time the Bulgarian Orthodox Church was left without a local theological school preparing educated ministers of the church.
Key words: Bulgarian Exarchate, Russo-Turkish War 1877–1878, Exarchate statute, diocese, schism
JEL: N30
DOI: 10.61836/AZFE3355
17. On the Political Economy of Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising
Author: Georgi N. GEORGIEV, Pencho D. PENCHEV
Abstract: The article applies basic ideas and theoretical concepts to analyze the course and consequences of the Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising of 1903. A careful historical reconstruction of the main moments related to the preparation, conduct and consequences of the uprising is made. It shows that the leaders of the Bulgarian liberation movement in Macedonia and the Edirne region underwent through a significant evolution, which can be clearly understood through the prism of fundamental postulates of political economy. It consists of the gradual rejection of a self-sacrificing short and bloody uprising and the adoption of the idea of a long armed struggle that would force the great powers and the Ottoman Empire toward reform, and autonomy. The leaders of the internal organization make a conscious choice to direct the limited resources at their disposal to activities with the greatest chance of success. They strive to achieve the best possible results, in relation to their goals, with the least possible expenditure of limited resources. The proposed conceptual framework is also suitable for studying other forms of the national liberation movement, and can be applied in other cases as well.
Key words: Political economy, uprising, liberation, theory
JEL: P41, P11
DOI: 10.61836/FQYH9245
18. Extraordinary Excess Credits in Financing the Bulgarian Army during the Wars (1912–1918) – Trends and Effects
Author: Rositsa ZLATINSKA
Abstract: The article presents and analyzes the role and the significance of the extraordinary excess credits to the War Ministry before and especially during the wars (1912–1918), their effects on the army, the finances and the Bulgarian economy. The creation and the structural changes of the national army are inevitably associated with a significant loading of the state financial system. All the reforms and transformations that have taken place over the years required a lot of financial resources. Bulgaria‘s participation in the three successive wars of 1912–1918 caused a significant increase in the amount of state funds allocated for military purposes. A large part of the military costs are covered by extraordinary excess credits voted by the government. Expenditure on the War Ministry gradually took first place in the structure of the state budget. After the end of the Balkan wars /1912–1913/ and the national catastrophe, the financial and economic situation in the country was unstable. With the involvement and in the course of World War I, the country moved towards wartime regulation of the economy through mobilisation measures in all economic sectors. The need to provide the army with the necessary technical equipment required significant funding from the state. The main source of funds during war time again was extraordinary excess credits. These over-budget credits, granted by the National Assembly reached colossal dimensions for the Bulgarian economy. Undoubtedly, the extraordinary excess credits burden the Bulgarian financial system, but it is fair to underline the fact that they stand out as an appropriate instrument capable of covering the rapidly growing military expenditure.
Key words: eBulgarian army, military needs, Balkan Wars /1912–1913/, extraordinary excess credits
JEL: N14, N44
DOI: 10.61836/TRHG2807
19. Specialized Institutions in the Bulgarian Economy during the Two World Wars. Historical Parallels
Author: Liliana VELEVA
Abstract: During the two world wars, the economies of the warring powers went into a regime of centralized state government for regulation and control. A whole system is being built with new organizational principles, with a new legal basis that covers all sectors of economic life. The state established its own administrative bodies, which were authorized to carry out its tasks and objectives of intervention in production, trade, food supply, price regulation, etc. Bulgaria was involved in both global conflicts. A series of mobilization measures also were implemented and the economy was put in wartime mode. Among the specialized institutions that operated during the First World War were the Committees and the Directorate for economic care and public foresight. During the Second World War, the Supreme and Regional Chambers of Commerce were established. Their activities reveal the Bulgarian experience and the peculiarities of the state government in military conditions. The business chambers used organizational and structural elements of the Italian and German authoritarian models.
Key words: world wars, economic institutions, мilitary economic policy, committees and directorate for economic care, chambers of commerce
JEL: N44, N24
DOI: 10.61836/MGRW8084
20. Antitrust Regulation in Times of Conflict and Crises
Author: Stoyan SHALAMANOV, Vesselina SHALAMANOVA
Abstract: The article examines the historical development of antitrust regulation and legislation in Bulgaria in the context of internal and external crises of various kinds. The analysis covers key periods from World War I, the times of the planned economy in Bulgaria before 1989, and the years of transition to a market economy, leading up to the contemporary challenges facing the regulation of monopolies in the country. It focuses on the institutional development of antitrust mechanisms and the evolution of the legal system. The study is of a legal-assessment nature, achieved through comparative analysis and an economic-historical approach. The authors conclude that different types of economic shocks lead to changes in the political approach to monopoly regulation. They also conclude that in such periods, the state administration tends to compromise economic principles of economy and efficiency with regard to the admission of monopolization.
Key words: Antitrust regulation, Market competition, History of monopolization, Conflicts, Crises
JEL: K21, N4, L4
DOI: 10.61836/AFTN9765
21. Consequences of the Wars on the Development of Sports in Bulgaria in the 20th Century
Author: Georgi PETRUNOV
Abstract: The article focuses on the effects of the wars on the development of sports in Bulgaria during the twentieth century. Sport is a civilizational achievement with significant economic implications. In the Bulgaria, it first appeared in the years following the Russo-Turkish War of Liberation (1877-1878), and it was fostered by foreign teachers, students returning from abroad, and officer movements. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 and World War I had significant implications for the development of sports in the country. Sports emerged as training for wars, and wars as preparation for sports. After the signing of the Treaty of Neuilly (1919), with the clauses abolishing compulsory military service in Bulgaria, the importance of sports and physical education in preparing the nation for participation in military operations increased. After World War I, sports organizations developed and expanded their economic dimensions, securing significant revenues from various sources. During this period, the Bulgarian National Sports Federation and the Bulgarian Olympic Committee were established, which was recognized by the International Olympic Committee. The Second World War had significant consequences for sport at the international level, and the consequences for the development of sport in Bulgaria after this war and after the change in the political system were particularly significant. The athletic organizations that existed before September 9, 1944 were labeled bourgeois, reformed, and abolished. With the outbreak of the Cold War, sport was recognized as a tool for promoting socialist ideology and its importance in the national economy expanded. At the same time, sports and prize money from international events proved to be a valuable source of scarce foreign currency in the socialist economy. The massification of sports and the industrial manufacturing of athletes began in the 1960s, notably in specifically designed sports schools. The consequences of the wars on the development of sports in Bulgaria in the 20th century were significant.
Key words: Sports, Wars, Economic Consequences, Capitalism, Socialism
JEL: N43, N44, Z13
DOI: 10.61836/EJTW6028
22. A Historical Portrait of Insecurity in Bulgaria (1878–2024): Socio-Economic Determinants
Author: Ralitsa VELEVA
Abstract: Within a long-term analytical framework, this study reconstructs the historical trajectory of poverty, inequality, and insecurity in Bulgaria from 1878 to 2024, interpreted within the context of wars, political turmoil, and institutional reforms. The evidence combines extended statistical series (GDP per capita, inequality indicators, poverty thresholds, life expectancy) with qualitative assessments of institutional responses. The objective is to demonstrate how successive crises – military conflicts, global depressions, socialist transformations, and market transitions, have shaped the country’s socio-economic fabric. The findings suggest that episodes of war and political instability produce lasting demographic and fiscal shocks, while institutional innovations often emerge as adaptive responses. In this regard, the socialist regime reduced extreme poverty and compressed inequality, though at the cost of efficiency and innovation, whereas the post-1990 transition accelerated European integration but introduced new vulnerabilities such as persistent inequality and high relative poverty. The issue of sustainable development is thus interpreted as dependent not solely on economic growth but also on the capacity of inclusive institutions to ensure redistribution, social protection, and human capital accumulation.
Key words: poverty; inequality; insecurity; demographic change; wars
JEL: N13, I32, I38
DOI: 10.61836/ISDC3792
23. The Wars of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th Century and Their Impact on the Economic and Demographic Situation of the Northeastern Bulgarian Lands
Author: Nevena NEDELCHEVA
Abstract: The article aims to examine the impact of the wars waged by Selim I and Süleyman I against Sefivid Iran in Asia Minor during the 16th century on the economy, demography, and settlement network of the northeastern Bulgarian lands. Although situated at a considerable distance from the Empire’s military conflicts, these territories became the destination of hundreds of Muslim settlers, many of whom were forcibly deported. In order to trace these processes and to identify their direct consequences – whether positive or negative – we have relied on information preserved in both published and unpublished Ottoman population registers. Our direct observations are focused on several deliberately selected regions: the districts (nahiye) of Varna and Provadia in the periphery, as well as Deliorman, the district of Kara Lom, Gerlovo, and Tozluka in the interior. The study of these areas provides us with a clear picture of how war influenced demographic and settlement dynamics, and consequently the confessional character of territories intrinsically connected with the medieval Bulgarian state. Such processes inevitably produced changes in the sphere of economic life as well. For this reason, the paper also addresses the transformations in the economic condition of the region, with particular attention to the agrarian background of the new settlers and their integration into the economic structures of the northeastern Bulgarian lands.
Key words: Ottoman–Sefivid War, North-eastern Bulgarian lands, Muslim Deportation, Muslim Colonization, Settlement network
JEL: N43, N53, N93
DOI: 10.61836/DYZT9540
24. The Trade Routes used by the Company “Hadzhi Mincho H. Tsachev and Evstati Seleveli and Partners” and the Consequences of Their Change during the Military Operations on the Balkan Front during the Crimean War (1853–1856)
Author: Veselin GORANCHEV
Abstract: The commercial house „H. M. H. Tsachev and E. Selveli and Partners“ was established in Tarnovo at the end of 1847 by local entrepreneurs H. M. H. Tsachev, H. N. Minchoolu, E. Selveli, and At. H. Nikolov. It operated until March 1856. Archival sources testify that until the beginning of military actions on the Balkan front during the Crimean War (1853-1856) and after their displacement north from Bulgarian lands, the main bulk of the deliveries of goods for the needs of the company was carried out mainly by water – either through the Black Sea, or along the Danube River. The shipments transported by sea were dispatched from/to Constantinople. At least some of them were sent from Trieste and from England. They were later forwarded to Varna, from where they were transported inland to the Bulgarian territories. The shipments transported along the Danube River were most often received in the towns of Svishtov and Ruse. The river was also used for transporting goods for the company between the Danubian settlements. The archival sources testify that the closure of the Black Sea ports and the interruption of commercial shipping on part of the Lower Danube, as a result of the Crimean War, necessitated a change in trade routes. In this case, commodities sent from and/or through Istanbul were transported from there overland to Tarnovo, while those sent by the Danube River were received in Vidin. The overland route from the Ottoman capital to Tarnovo passed through the village of Shipka throughout the Balkan range, and passing this route took about 30 days. A document states that carrying out the same activity through Varna took about 15 days. The interruption of commercial shipping in the eastern part of the Lower Danube (from Vidin eastwards and vice versa) also hindered the transportation of goods within the Bulgarian lands, in this case between Tarnovo and Vidin (in both directions). In this situation, goods were transported between the two cities via an overland route that passed through Pleven. This took between 11 and 18 days. Documents testify that with good organization, the transportation of goods between Tarnovo and Vidin along the Danube River, with a stopping point in Svishtov, could have been accomplished within a few days. We can assume that due to the longer period of time for transporting items by land, the company incurred higher transport costs. During the mentioned time frame, land transport was hindered by a shortage of carriers, some of whom, as it seems, were engaged in unpaid labor (corvee) for the Ottoman state.
Key words: Crimean War (1853–1856), Bulgarian National Revival period, commerce, commercial routes, commercial house „H. M. H. Tsachev and E. Selveli and Partners“
JEL: N73, N93
DOI: 10.61836/MYED7848
25. Shadows of War: The Region of Kazanlak according to the British Consul Blunt in 1877
Author: Aleksandar ZLATANOV
Abstract: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 concluded the protracted Eastern Crisis, reshaping the geopolitical and territorial landscape of the Balkans fundamentally. The human and social consequences of this military confrontation were profound. The Russo-Turkish War unleashed unprecedented demographic turmoil, mass emigration, disease outbreaks, widespread destruction, and forced violence against both Muslim and non-Muslim civilians across the central Rumelia province. Scholars estimate that hundreds of thousands of Muslims and Christians were displaced, and disease outbreaks and famine exacerbated mortality rates in the war-affected regions. In that regard, the Kazanlak region, located immediately to the Shipka Pass – a critical route between the plains of northern Bulgaria and the Thracian lowlands – was among the severely affected areas. During July–August 1877, this region became the epicenter of military operations, with clashes between Russian forces under General Gurko and Ottoman forces commanded by Süleyman Pasha. The detailed observations of British Consul J. E. Blunt, encapsulated in his “Report on the Effects of the Russian Invasion of Roumelia”, assisted by Edmund Calvert and Frederick Calvert, constitute a primary source that captures the scale of demographic, economic, political and social changes experienced by the strategically important Kazanlak district in 1877 during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. Blunt and his assistants documented the population displacements, housing destruction, agricultural devastation, and widespread economic collapse triggered by the war. This article presents and integrates Consul Blunt’s original observations in 1877 with insights and analysis, contributing to a nuanced understanding of how geopolitical strategies translated into local demographic and social transformations. Through examining these interconnected dynamics, the study illuminates the complex relationship between military actions and their lasting impact on civilian populations, particularly in sensitive strategic zones such as the Kazanlak region.
Key words: Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Kazanlak region, Demography, War destruction, British Consular reports
JEL: N33, N43, N53, N93, O15, O18
DOI: 10.61836/PDLL7515
26. The War, Money and Military Supplying according to the Archive of Major Raycho Nikolov
Author: Vidin SUKAREV
Abstract: Raycho Nikolov represents a paradigmatic case of how an act of wartime heroism could be transformed into symbolic capital, subsequently redefined as social and ultimately converted into economic capital. A young man of modest rural origin undergoes a remarkable process of social recategorization, culminating in his advancement to the rank of Russian officer and hereditary nobleman. Archival evidence demonstrates that, in peacetime, Nikolov engaged in diverse entrepreneurial activities. His growing interest in such pursuits appears to have been the most probable reason for his resignation from military service in 1873. In Bessarabia, he acquired both residential and agricultural properties and, over the course of five years, extended credit at interest to hundreds of individuals. His participation in the Serbo-Turkish War of 1876 and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 once again transformed his life trajectory. Documents confirm that during these conflicts he not only received but also redistributed financial resources, while not neglecting his own personal benefit. Whereas the outcome of the first conflict was favorable, shortly after the Treaty of San Stefano he was accused of looting a Muslim village and endured nearly a year without income. His guilt was never substantiated, and the amount in question – 11 rubles and 50 kopeks – was insignificant for a man of his economic standing. Ultimately, in February 1879 he was pardoned and relocated to Plovdiv, where he entered service in the Eastern Rumelian militia and reestablished his entrepreneurial activities by purchasing a large estate (chiflik) along with additional properties. There is no evidence that in Bulgaria he engaged in money-lending at interest; his wife was authorized to administer his financial affairs in Bessarabia. The elevated social and material status gained through military conflict was also instrumental for subsequent generations. His daughter married into a wealthy Plovdiv family, and the descendants continued to reside on the estate until the major socio-political changes following the Second World War. The property was later expropriated, and in compensation an apartment was allocated. Nikolov’s economic, and particularly usurious, activities were deliberately obscured during the communist regime, when his persona was mobilized as a symbolic example of the so-called Russo-Bulgarian military fraternity across the centuries. Consequently, his archive long remained neglected. Revealing the truth about Nikolov’s personal finances in no way diminishes his well-earned status as a national hero. Rather, it enriches the understanding of his personality and raises significant moral questions of both scholarly and human relevance.
Key words: Raycho Nikolov; Archive; Heroism; Crimean war; Simbolic capital; Social re-categorization; Money-lending; Real estates
JEL: N83, N93
DOI: 10.61836/TUFC2246
27. Bulgaria’s Foreign Trade Exchange along the Danube River during the War Period (1912–1918) – Trends, Dimensions, Changes
Author: Margarita MARINOVA, Emilia VACHEVA
Abstract: Foreign trade was one of the most severely affected domains of the Bulgarian economy during the 1912–1918 wars. This was particularly true during the years of World War I. During the war years, given the closing of the Straits and other important trade routes as a consequence of the country’s foreign policy commitments, the Danube River (together with land roads and railways) became one of the main channels through which imports and exports were accomplished. The subject of this article is foreign trade on the Danube River, which is carried out from its seven main ports. The thematic-chronological approach is applied. The study is based on data from the Statistical Collections on Bulgaria’s Trade with Foreign Countries. They were published by the Directorate of Statistics. The Danube’s place as one of the routes for the transportation of goods during the war years is established. The trade of imports and exports in quantity and value during the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) and the short-lived peace period in 1914 has been traced. The fluctuations compared to the pre-war level of 1911 have been proven. The indicators in the years of the First World War have been analyzed in detail. The most important changes that occurred in them have been indicated. Special attention has been paid to the trend towards a significant decline in the quantity of exports, which mainly consist of cereals. The categories of stock groups that have the largest share in both imports and exports have been indicated. The conclusion has been derived that the First World War greatly disrupted the Danube export trade, while the shocks in the import trade were not so seldom and in 1917–1918 it functioned fully. At the end, the ranking of the Danube cities in 1918 according to their role and importance in the country’s foreign trade is analyzed and a comparison is made with that in 1911. It is concluded that Ruse, Svishtov and Lom remained important centers of import trade and that in 1918 the Danube ports did not really participate in Bulgaria’s export trade.
Key words: Danube River, Balkan Wars, World War I, foreign trade, product group categories, import and export trends
JEL: N14, N44, N74, N94
DOI: 10.61836/MJIE5978
28. Ivan Hadzhiberov – Industrialist, Entrepreneur and Donor, in Calm and Uncertain Times
Author: Ivan POSTOMPIROV
Abstract: Ivan Hadzhiberov (1858–1934) was from the first generation of industrialists that laid the foundations of the famous Gabrovo industry. Even during his lifetime, he was defined by his contemporaries as a „legendary Bulgarian“, „the most popular among Gabrovo manufacturers“, „a man of progress“, „the Bulgarian Japanese“. Ivan Hadzhiberov was born in Gabrovo in 1858 and came from a wealthy, but not rich, family. Like other first-generation industrialists, Ivan Hadzhiberov did not receive a particularly high education. Even at a very young age, he helped his father in the trade. For some time he earned his living as a traveling salesman. After collecting some capital, Hadzhiberov invested in a modern mill (1890), built a woolen textile factory in partnership, which was the fourth in a row in Gabrovo (1892). The third enterprise that he built independently was a hydroelectric power plant on the Yantra River (1906). It is the second in the country and the first for industrial purposes. With it, he electrified part of Gabrovo and several factories. It conducts its own social policy for its workers and employees, donates funds to schools and libraries. Until now, in various publications, Ivan Hadzhiberov has been presented in an unrealistic light, existing and non-existent merits are attributed to him, myths are created around his name. The purpose of this article is to present his actual contribution to Gabrovo and Bulgaria.
Key words: Gabrovo, trade, industrialist, entrepreneur, wool textile enterprise, power plant
JEL: L67, N63, N64, N73, N74, N93, N94, O14
DOI: 10.61836/WKVI1004
29. Wartime Impact over the Monastic Economics in Bulgaria (1913–1930). The Case of Bachkovo Monastery
Author: Nikolay ATANASOV
Abstract: Wars for unification impose optimization of public sources. This politics reflects over the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. State calls the Holy Synod to sow all available lands to meet the needs of the population in the approaching days of the First World War. For this purpose, a fund is being established at the Holy Synod, which aims to modernize and optimize the monastic farms. Despite the difficult years of the war, sums are being allocated, which enable the development of the social, cultural and charitable activities, as well as for the development of the monastery farms themselves. After the end of the First World War the Regime of Alexander Stamboliyski is established, which has two important targets – the first, to satisfy the needs for land of landless and poor population in the country and the second one, to ensure livelihood for the large wave of refugees, that is seeking of shelter. As a result of the agrarian reform undertaken in 1921 lands were expropriated, which constitute a state fund for the needs of poor. This politics affects also the monastic lands that are not modernized and are not cultivated. The subsequent political regime of the government of ninth of June, this politics is reinforced by another law in the same direction in 1924. This law notes that lands that are occupied by intensive crops and are included in a cultivation plan would not be subject to expropriation. These policies put the Bulgarian monasteries into a position of a constant pressure by the state to be modernized, in order to become profitable farms. The Holy Synod began to hire agronomists, who should develop plans to grow the monastic farms, but this requires time and above all, funds, which is hard to be provided by the monastic administration. Despite difficulties, plans are being developed for modernization and optimization of the monastic farms, as is the case with Bachkovo monastery reviewed in this article. Business plan is reviewed that is consistent with the market trends and transformation of production into a profitable one.
Key words: monastery farms, monastery economics, agriculture, Bachkovo monastery, agrarian policy
JEL: N34, N94, Z12, Q12, Q13, Q15
DOI: 10.61836/ZLLA2873
30. The Turmus Metal Products Factory under Trade Blockade and Wartime Legislation
Author: Yordanka KRIVOSHIEVA
Abstract: The study presents an atypical production for the country, which began in 1930. The aim is to show how it reacted to the major political and economic upheavals during the war period 1939–1945. The Turmus factory in Plovdiv satisfied a need on the domestic market for all kinds of tableware – forks, spoons, knives, spatulas. Although it did not have a significant impact on the formation of the country‘s trade balance, the enterprise gave a new vision to the metal industry in the country. Production was carried out on the basis of imported raw materials. The introduction of restrictions in import-export trade had a generally unfavorable effect – it reduced the variety of items, narrowed the wide circle of debtors and creditors. Since the beginning of 1943, the self-financing and self-crediting of the factory prevented the complete cessation of the production process, but the total turnover fell tenfold. The study shows the advantages and disadvantages of state regulation in the industry in wartime.
Keywords: metal industry, factory, production, import-export trade, laws
JEL: N14, N84, N94
DOI: 10.61836/DVFR2768
31. Dr. Boris Dobrev: The Fate of a Doctor between Medicine, Çiftliks, and Wa
Author: Petar DOBREV
Abstract: The article explores the life and professional legacy of Dr. Boris Nikoliev Dobrev (1900–1980), pioneer of obstetric care in Balchik, a coastal town in Southern Dobrudja. Educated in Graz and returning to his homeland under Romanian rule, Dobrev became a central figure in local medical, social, and cultural life. Drawing on his preserved personal archive, the study presents a microhistorical perspective on the transformations of the 1930s–1950s, including the political reannexation of Dobrudja to Bulgaria and the disruptions of World War II. Dr. Dobrev was also an active participant in the çiftlik of his father, as well as in that of his father-in-law, Zahari Holevich. The preserved documents reveal important details about the agricultural activities of both families during the difficult war years. The article highlights his founding of the first maternity home in Balchik in 1943, achieved through personal initiative amid wartime conditions, as well as his later encounters with the new socialist regime. Through the intertwined narratives of medicine, çiftliks, and family, the text reconstructs a nuanced portrait of a provincial intellectual navigating dramatic historical change while remaining devoted to the service of life.
Key words: iftliks, Romania, Bulgaria, Dobrudja, World War II, medical history, microhistory
JEL: N13, N23, N73, N93
DOI: 10.61836/JIFR8337
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